Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant Is a Remarkable Book

The Tree of Life, by Norma Boeckler

Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant is a remarkable book. At a time when doctrinal indifference is taught and practiced to varying degrees by all Lutheran Synods this book comes as a blessing from the Lord. For certainly we do not keep or teach His Word purely in and of ourselves but it is a gift from God given by grace through the Holy Spirit.

Pastor Gregory Jackson has appropriately addressed the similarities and differences between these doctrines of faith. They are presented clearly and without emotional emphasis by the author. Pastor Jackson remains consistent with his other writings by measuring every teaching by Scripture, the Lutheran Confessions and includes the scripturally faithful statements of our Church Fathers. This is the foundation which many in the churches and synods today are tearing down in favor of human reason, worldly success, personal relationships and temporary security.

I found his insights to be accurate and detailed concerning the doctrines covered and he thoroughly presents the origins and reasoning behind the false teachings being taught by Lutheran churches, Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church. I believe he gave appropriate emphasis of the Reformed doctrines which are so prevalent in Lutheran churches and Catholic heresies as these speak to where we are today and where the world is heading.

In our day, when the ELS is removing churches from membership because they exercise the office of the keys in response to public sin, the WELS enthusiastically rejects the work of the Holy Ghost through promotion of Church Growth practices and the LCMS lunges headlong toward fellowship with the ELCA and Rome, it is especially important to understand the differences between true Biblical doctrines and the false doctrines of men. For as we daily draw nearer to the glorious return of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ we will continue to be tempted, by our own sinful flesh, Satan and the doctrines of false teachers, to abandon our only Rock and sure Foundation for the false security and comfort of widely accepted false doctrines. As apostate pastors, corrupt synod officials, blind church leaders and an unbelieving world continue their journey toward Rome and the Antichrist it will remain the responsibility of the orthodox Lutheran layman to discern the truth using Scripture and our Lutheran Confessions in order to remain faithful to Christ and by God’s grace endure to the end.

I highly recommend this book to everyone who has an interest in pure doctrine and even more so to those who don’t. But I would be remiss if I didn’t also recommend Pastor Jackson’s other exceptional books Jesus Priceless Treasure, Thy Strong Word and Liberalism: It’s Cause and Cure.

Brett Meyer

On May 29th, 1453, A Christian Empire Fell

Constantine the Great, 274 - 337 AD, Founder of New Rome, Now Istanbul, Turkey
On May 29th a Christian Empire Fell

Most people do not recognize May 29th as a special day in history. Everyone in Eastern Orthodoxy (Greek, Russian, Romanian, Serbian Orthodox) mourns the day. May 29, 1453 is when the last remnant of an 1100-year-old empire fell with the loss of Constantinople, the greatest and richest city of the world at one time.

During this Memorial Day weekend we should remember what it meant to those Christians who fought against 10-1 odds as the Ottoman Muslim attacked them without cause. The Ottoman Empire had grown at the expense of the Byzantine Christian Empire, but the Byzantines kept them at bay for centuries. During that time, Europe was reasonably safe from invasion, although Italy suffered many naval attacks.

The last emperor of Constantinople had the same name as the first emperor – Constantine. He died fighting on the city walls, his ranks given away by his purple buskins, which only the emperor wore. He gave a speech to his people the day before the city fell, the day before he died:

He spoke first to his Greek subjects, telling them that there were four great causes for which a man should be ready to die: his faith, his country, his family and his sovereign. They must now be prepared to give their lives for all four. He for his part would willingly sacrifice his own for his faith, his city and his people. They were a great and noble people, the descendents of the heroes of ancient Greece and Rome, and he had no doubt that they would prove themselves worthy of their forefathers in the defense of their city, in which the infidel Sultan wished to seat his false prophet on the throne of Jesus Christ. Turning to the Italians, he thanked them for all that they had done and assured them of his love and trust in the dangers that lay ahead. They and the Greeks were now one people, united in God; with his help they would be victorious. Finally he walked slowly round the room, speaking to each man in turn and begging forgiveness if he ever caused him any offense. Source:The American Spectator

I find it very troubling that people gnash their teeth over the fact that soldiers sacrifice their lives fighting for America. People have forgotten what Jefferson wrote: “The tree of liberty must be watered with the blood of tyrants and patriots. It is its natural manure.” The nobility of fighting for our country is being forgotten.

When students talk about our loss of lives in Iraq, I ask them how many lives are lost to traffic accidents in Arizona. The figure is about 1,000 per year, the same as our losses in Iraq and other places. I do not have the exact figures, but I know we lose soldiers in similar numbers annually from training and traffic accidents.

I often teach in Yuma, where we have a Marine air station for Harriers, a city that features an air show every day. Helicopters practice their maneuvers over the city. One road is marked because of parachuting soldiers landing there. The Yuma Proving Grounds are using for training in desert warfare. Yuma is hotter than Phoenix.

Many of my students in Yuma are Marines, but some have come from other service branches. Some are just back from Iraq. Some are headed there next. I often think of them when the statistics are announced over TV. I am sorry they have to do their jobs with such wavering and manipulative support from the politicians. Nevertheless, they show us time and again that they are the bravest, best-equipped, and most compassionate military force in history. They stand between us and slavery.

When Constantinople was conquered by Islam, the attractive women, girls, and boys were rounded up for Muslim harems. The strongest boys were put in the elite fighting group, the Janissaries, made up of captured Christians. The rest were slaughtered or sold into slavery.

The year 1453 is significant. The Ottoman Empire began to march against Europe. They were partially successful. The biggest efforts came against Vienna. In 1683 a certain victory for the Ottoman Empire was turned into a rout by a decisive attack. Coffee beans were captured as booty; the coffee house was born in Vienna.

Europe remained free because highly trained soldiers were able to defeat a Muslim army glorying in its past victories.

Our military people, past and present, living and dead, deserve our respect and gratitude.

The soldier above all others prays for peace, for it is the soldier who must suffer and bear the deepest wounds and scars of war. Douglas MacArthur

Why Athens Still Matters Today

The Ruins of the Parthenon, Built 432 BC, and Alexander the Great, 356 - 332 BC, Who Conquered the Known World for Greek Culture

Why Athens Still Matters Today

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

December 02, 2005

In a brief period of time, about 100 years, a remarkable city, Athens, generated the finest examples of our Western culture, which remain our models of excellence today:
1. Philosophy – Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
2. History – Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon
3. Drama – Sophocles, Euripides
4. Comedy – Aristophanes
5. Architecture – The Parthenon
6. Sculpture – Phidias, Praxiteles
7. Politics – Democracy
8. Literature and poetry – Building on Homer (800 BC)
Athens went into a period of decline, mostly because of the 27-year war with Sparta, the Peloponnesian War. Persia was also a constant threat, having made repeated attempts to conquer Greece (Barr, 1961).
Alexander the Great (356-323 BC)

Suddenly, a great Macedonian general was murdered, perhaps by his ex-wife, the mother of Alexander. The son did not automatically become the leader of Macedonia, but he quickly assumed power, swept down across Greece, and consolidated power. Then Alexander proposed an attack on Persia, to revenge losses from previous wars. He went on a 10 year conquest of the civilized world, reaching India, but turning back when his veterans refused to conquer one more land.
Alexander the Great took Greek culture with him (Fox, 2003). Tutored by Aristotle as a youth, he spread Hellenistic culture across the lands he conquered. Although his death meant the division of his empire, Hellenistic learning and achievements lasted in all those lands, especially in the city in Egypt he modestly named after himself, Alexandria.

The Roman Republic and Empire
When the Alexandrian empire was receding, another one was growing. Rome threw off its monarchy in 510 BC and established a republic until 44 BC. Roman citizens voted for their leaders and began an expansion westward toward England and eastward toward India. They dominated northern Africa and controlled the Mediterranean Sea.
The mark of education in Rome was Greek culture. The Romans modeled their gods after the Greeks, changing the names only slightly. Zeus Pater (Zeus the Father) became Jupiter. Aphrodite the love goddess became Venus. Hermes the messenger became Mercury. Roman literature, drama, comedy, and philosophy looked to Athens for models to emulate. Roman architecture and sculpture reflected their admiration for the greatest Greek accomplishments.
Rome did not die with the Sack of Rome in 410, but Western Europe became fragmented when officials left their posts and tracts of land were taken over by hungrier and more ferocious Germanic tribes. The Church of Rome and the Bishop of Rome grew in importance across Europe, providing literate priests and scholars who filled the vacuum left by the decline of Rome.

Medieval Europe
The Medieval period of Europe (410 to 1453 AD) was dominated by the Latin language and by the Church of Rome. Although Christianity was born in Judaism, the religion was spread and defended through the medium of classical studies. The theologians were philosophers who knew Aristotle and other writers in Latin. Augustine (around the time of the Sack of Rome) was brilliant in Latin and in Greek. Thomas Aquinas, 12th century, wrote exclusively in Latin.

Byzantine Empire (330 AD to 1453 AD)
When the Roman Empire of Western Europe was declining, the Eastern Empire established in Byzantium grew in power. Constantine established his New Rome in Byzantium, which became Constantinople in his honor. The Byzantine Empire was not only incredibly wealthy but also largely Christian. Constantine became a baptized Christian on his deathbed and pointed his domain in the direction of Christianity. For eleven centuries Constantinople was the center of Christianity. A long period of decline began with the Fourth Crusade when the Latin Christians (Church of Rome) sacked Constantinople and ruled the city for 50 years. The Eastern Empire was also whittled away by the growing power of the Ottoman (Turkish) Moslem Empire (Norwich, 1997).

Renaissance and Reformation
The Fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, horrified the West, who did little to help the struggling city. However, the final days led to Greek scholars and Greek treasures emigrating to Italy, helping to spark the Renaissance. Classical scholarship, art, literature, sculpture, architecture, took on a new life and spread across Europe. The concept of freedom began to percolate through the Medieval world of kings and popes.

Athens remained the model for culture. European education revolved around classical scholarship. An educated gentleman (and some notable ladies) were well versed in Latin and in Greek, although Greek was not in the curriculum for everyone. The Reformation grew out of the Renaissance, starting with the scholarship of Erasmus, who published a Greek New Testament. Martin Luther hatched the egg that Erasmus laid, as some wits said, when he posted his 95 Theses (in Latin) in 1517 and wrote in German for the first printing press, cobbled from an old wine press, by Gutenberg.

The Renaissance and Reformation surged ahead with the printing press, sending religious literature in the modern languages of Europe (and in Latin) across the civilized world. The theologians of the Reformation were necessarily Greek, Latin, and Hebrew scholars. They argued their viewpoints through the language of philosophy, especially Aristotle.
Protestant ministers were expected to learn Greek. Books were relatively inexpensive compared to the manuscripts of the past.

England – Protestant or Catholic
England was the battleground for religion. Henry VIII was ordered to marry his late brother’s widow. His lack of a male heir convinced him that his incestuous marriage was cursed. The divorce from Catharine of Aragon and marriage to Ann Bolyn led to his break with Rome. Catherine gave birth to Mary (known as Bloody Mary for persecuting Protestants). Ann gave birth to Elizabeth, who favored the Protestant leanings of her country and her father. Elizabeth’s fabled reign, immediate after Bloody Mary’s, was especially tolerant of religion. Scholarship flourished. England was relatively free, prosperous, and stable. Shakespeare wrote his sonnets and plays, all of them imbued with classical learning.
Queen Elizabeth was finally forced to have her cousin Mary Queen of Scots executed for high treason. However, Mary’s son, James VI of Scotland, became James I of England and Scotland, the first of the Stuart kings. One author said of the Stuarts, “They left an indelible bad impression on England (Trevelyan, 1996.).” James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II all plotted to make England Roman Catholic again. This led to two important developments:
1. Parliament gained influence and the throne lost power, giving English citizens more rights and freedom.
2. Protestants tired of the strains of religious tension (such as the Catholic plot to blow up Parliament) and headed for America.
America – Haven for Religious Freedom
The founding of America by educated English citizens during this period made the earliest citizens completely opposed to the rule of the Church by any monarch. They also arrived with a sense of Parliament having powers over and above that of any king. The American Revolution focused on the rights of man established by the Creator. “We are endowed by our Creator with certain inalienable rights, among them, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
The Founders were well aware of the decline of Rome because Edward Gibbons published his sensational Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in 1776. They looked to the Roman Republic and the earlier Athenian democracy as the ideals of government. When they established their tiny little schools in America - Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Dartmouth, the University of Pennsylvania, William and Mary College – they taught their students Latin, Greek, and the elements of a classical education.

Greek Revival – 1900s
Greek learning underwent a revival at the turn of the century, 1900, when Greek fraternities and sororities were started to promote Greek learning, not toga parties. Greek and Roman scholarship were considered the foundation of a sound education. Until a few decades ago, all high school students who wanted to apply for college were told, “You must have two years of Latin or the good schools will not want you.”
Our present culture may not care much for classical scholarship, but Athens and Rome still weigh heavily in our history, literature, and art. When people visit Washington DC, they see Greek and Roman temples, homage to our classical past.

References
Barr, S. (1961). The will of Zeus: A history of Greece. New York: Delta.
Fox, R. L. (2003). Alexander the great. London: The Folio Society.
Norwich, J. J. (1997). A short history of Byzantium. New York: Vintage .
Trevelyan, G. M. (1996). England under the Stuarts. London: The Folio Society.

Byzantium: The Forgotten Christian Empire

Hagia Sophia, The Church of Holy Wisdom, An Engineering Marvel of the Byzantine Empire, Completed in 537 AD!
Byzantium – The Forgotten Eastern Roman Empire

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

The Western Roman Empire began to decline rapidly after Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 AD. The sack was not so terrible as everyone imagines. The shock to the civilized world came from Roman citizens no longer willing or able to defend the capital of Eternal Rome. Western Christianity had its bishop in Rome, so Christians were tempted to think God had abandoned His own headquarters. Augustine of Hippo wrote his classic City of God to argue that the true City of God is invisible, eternal, and built on the foundations of Christ, not man.

Roman civil officials began to abandon their posts and the Western Empire began to disintegrate into the countries we know as Europe in the coming centuries. In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire grew in power and importance as the trading center of Europe, Asia, and Africa. This forgotten empire was already in existence before Constantine refashioned his New Rome about 300 AD.

Constantine was a military and political genius. He began his rise in England, with a famous general as a father. He fought his way to Rome to become one of the rulers and then consolidated his power until he alone ruled the entire empire, from England to the outskirts of India. However, he did not like the City of Rome and spent little time there. He made his new city in Byzantium and the building project became Constantinople. He rebuilt it almost overnight, importing Roman nobility with generous bribes of land and fortune. The City of Rome was largely pagan, but Constantine made his new city Christian.

Constantine was baptized as a Christian before his death. He considered himself Equal to the Apostles. His self-fashioned title became a job description of most emperors who followed him (except Julian the Apostate, who tried to reverse trends back to paganism). The Byzantine emperors were highly educated and the Eastern Empire followed their example in literacy and religious devotion. Although the Bishop of Rome tried to emphasize its power over all churches, the Archbishop of Constantinople led Eastern Orthodoxy. There were periods of cooperation but also extended times of mutual excommunication and warfare.

Constantinople was ideally situated for trade between Asia and Europe, with land routes in both directions and access to the Mediterranean Sea. The city also had abundant fresh water, fish, and natural defenses. The city became incredibly wealthy from trade. When Islam grew after the death of Mohammed in 632 AD, Constantinople served as a buffer between Islamic expansion and Europe. Although Byzantium worked with the Ottoman (Moslem) Empire, renting its warriors when needed, the city also tempted the Islamic leaders to capture it, for its wealth and religious symbolism.

Islam whittled away at Byzantium for centuries until Constantinople became a dispirited island in the midst of Moslem forts and armies. Finally the city fell on May 29, 1453, a day of doom still remembered throughout Eastern Orthodoxy. For the Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, and other Eastern rites, Constantinople was their religious capital and treasure-house of religious icons, including the True Cross.

Byzantium continued as a Christian empire for eleven centuries, a remarkable achievement. The empire was highly educated and skilled in the arts. They preserved the New Testament in the original Greek and the archives of classical literature. The Moslems often transmitted these masterpieces to Europe, but the main center of learning was Constantinople and other Byzantine cities.

Militarily, the Eastern Empire was not appreciated until it fell. Then the Islamic armies moved on Europe and extended their rule into Europe until 1683, when they were turned back for good at Vienna. The Ottoman Empire peaked after its capture of Constantinople, but the disintegration of their rule was slow, like that of Rome and Byzantium. The Ottoman Empire became the “sick old man” of Europe before World War I and exists today only as Turkey. Constantinople became Istanbul because the victors transformed the Greek for “into the city” as Istanbul.

Some contributions of the Byzantine Empire are:
1. They kept the Islamic armies at bay when Europe was young and weak.
2. They hosted the successful First Crusade, which took Jerusalem back from Islam and established a Christian kingdom there for some years.
3. They were the religious and cultural center of the world for more than a thousand years.
4. They served as a central point for world trade.

No one can do justice to this empire in a few pages, or even in a few volumes. However, we should remember that the last emperor of Byzantium died fighting for his city, his country, his culture. His name was also Constantine.

Western Religion Today

The Pieta, Mary and Jesus, by Michelangelo
Religion Today

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

The three Western religions have enormous influence in America today. All three are undergoing vast changes and conflicts. These changes and conflicts relate to our changing society as well as the relationships among the three religions.

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are adopting to or reacting against American culture at this time. In all three groups there are tendencies to blend in with the culture or to establish a separate identity opposing the culture.

Jews have assimilated so well into America that many people are astonished to learn that many celebrities, writers, and sports stars are Jewish. However, there are also enclaves of Jews, especially in metropolitan areas, where the traditional dress and customs of Jews single them out among the population. Wearing the yarmulka is not so remarkable, since many Jewish men wear the yarmulka in urban areas. What startles the casual observer are the full beards of the men, their large hats, and their exotic customs.

Likewise, Christianity was a primary reason for establishing America as a “city set on a hill.” Protestantism and Catholicism became so entwined in our culture that politicians cultivate the religious leaders of both groups. Many large denominations have joined the Roman Catholic Church in providing professional lobbyists in Washington DC. However, reactionaries have established their own areas where the problems of American culture are resisted as much as possible. Although religious motivation is mixed with political ideology, it is fair to say that Protestant separatism is rooted in their approach to the Scriptures.

Islam can assimilate into other cultures but it can also react against a host country in a Holy War, a jihad. Even if the vast majority of Islamic adherents are peaceful and industrious, a small percentage of the 500 million Muslims world-wide can disrupt the world economy and destroy the world’s peace. Added to this explosive mixture is the fact that some Jewish leaders are equally bellicose about Islam. Therefore, a small minority in each religion can keep the tensions going indefinitely. Several trends in Islam are unique, compared to Christianity and Judaism. The Moslems are growing through their birthrate and through conversion. Moreover, Muslims take their religion seriously and pack the local mosques while Jews and Christians remain away. The combination of population pressure and religious zeal is bound to be explosive in the coming decades.

From a doctrinal standpoint, American Christianity is moving in two directions at once. The old established denominations have clergy and theologians who may as well be Unitarians. They do not teach the divinity of Christ, the Virgin Birth of Christ, or His actual resurrection. Instead, they make everything “symbolic” and mythological. These mainline denominations are quite intent on changing American standards of social justice but have little interest in the official confessions of their denominations. At the same time many former members of established churches are founding their own congregations and church groups to re-establish what was once taught. The old established denominations are moving toward merger into one big denomination. The newly independent congregations are looking for fellowship among like-minded Christians.

The Catholic situation needs to be addressed separately. The same trends are clear in the Roman Catholic Church, but it is impossible to be Roman Catholic outside of the institution. Therefore, it is convenient to have groups within the visible church to lobby for this doctrine or that, for this social action idea or for another. Roman Catholicism is so extensive that almost any set of doctrines can find a common ground among the various interest groups (Assumption of Joseph movement, Marian societies, liberal social action, Opus Dei, religious orders, etc).

Discussion Questions

1. Will Islam accommodate itself peacefully in America or will the trends toward jihad continue?
2. What can Israel do to relieve tensions with Islam?
3. What did you learn most about during this course?

Islam

Kaaba Shrine, Center for Polytheistic Religion Before Mohammed Declared Allah as the Only God
Islam

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

Islam is the last of the three Western religions to form, so its basic tenets reflect Judaism and Christianity to some extent. Islam shares some features with Judaism and Christianity:
1. Islam is a historic religion rather than a mythical religion, so it matters the key figures actually lived.
2. Islam has a clear concept of law, giving its followers guidelines for daily life and worship.
3. Islam is a religion of the Book – the Koran. The scriptures of Islam are clearly defined, coming from one source, the prophet Mohammed.

People often think of Islam as being invented by the prophet Mohammed, but it would be more responsible to view the religion as a reform of Bedouin polytheism, adopting many of the existing terms and traditions.

The Prophet Mohammed
The prophet Mohammed had an unusual childhood, his father dead before he was born in 570, his mother dying when he was a young child, his grandfather passing on when the boy still needed a family. His uncles introduced him to trading, and he learned rapidly about camel caravans. In Mecca, Mohammed was considered a dreamer and looked down upon for his lack of wealth, position, and military prowess. These attitudes greatly influenced future events.

Mohammed met and married a wealthy woman 15 years his senior. His marriage hurt him in the eyes of his contemporaries, but it gave Mohammed his first chance to make a mark in the world of trade, where he was successful in managing his wife’s business. He began to have visions and announced that he was the prophet of God, appointed by Gabriel. Most people dismissed him as a crank or a mental case, but he began to draw a group of followers around himself, starting with his wife and relatives.

Most people think that Mohammed did not write down his visions but recited them to his followers, who wrote them down and codified them in the Koran. Mohammed was skillful in his use of the Arabic style of poetry, but he was probably scorned for being unable to write. Poets and storytellers vied with each other for the esteem of the public. Mohammed had many rivals in this popular culture.

Tensions built up in Mecca, especially after the death of Mohammed’s first wife. Her family stopped protecting Mohammed, so it was wise for him to leave the city. He settled in Medina, making it the second holy city for Islam. From Medina Mohammed staged raids on the camel caravans of his rivals in Mecca, even during the holy season of Ramadan. Some of the first efforts were not successful, but they proved annoying to the Mecca merchants. Mohammed surprisingly defeated the Mecca army sent to destroy him and his followers. Mecca then capitulated to Mohammed and accepted his rule. After Mohammed’s death in 632 there was another attempt to sweep Islam from the country. Instead, Islamic forces won the day and began an expansion that took Jerusalem a few years later, then grew until Constantinople fell in 1453. Vienna itself was threatened in 1530.

Islamic military might was so great during the Reformation that it helped establish the Lutheran Church in Germany. Charles V, the Catholic ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, wanted to destroy Luther and the Reformation in Germany. However, he was so busy fighting the Islamic armies that the Lutherans and other Protestants were able to establish their teaching, churches, and colleges.

Bedouin Religion before Mohammed
The moon-god Allah already existed before Mohammed declared him to be the only god. The Kaaba shrine was already established in Mecca. The Kaaba is probably a meteorite. They were worshiped in ancient times as sacred objects. Mohammed’s innovation was to denounce the many deities worshiped at the Kaaba. At one point he allowed for the daughters of Allah (who were especially venerated) in the Koran, but those verses were removed later and called “The Satanic Verses.” That is the origin of the controversial book by Salmon Rushie.

The practice of walking around the Kaaba was well established before Mohammed. The circumambulation is still one of the features of the pilgrimage (Hadj) today. The pilgrimage is an obligation of Islamic men, earning them the right to add Hadj to their names. This led to one of the more interesting episodes in Arizona history. The government tried to create a camel corps in Arizona, bringing several herds over with a native driver. His name was Hadj-Ali, so he was nicknamed Hi Jolly. The monument to Hi Jolly can be found on the border of Arizona and California, in Quartzite, a town that seems to have been imported from Arabia.

The Five Pillars of Islam
Pilgrimage is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The other four are:

1. Imam – Faith in the One God.
2. Salah – Prayer five times a day.
3. Zakah – Charity.
4. Sawm – Fasting during Ramadan.

Islam is relatively easy to study and to teach, because the basic doctrines are codified and relatively standard. One can even get on the Internet and calculate his Zakah obligation for the year, based on income, animal herds, 401k plans, and property.
Some will claim that Islam has no priesthood, but in fact the religious leaders of Islam are also political leaders as well. Although the influence of Islam varies in each country, no other world religion is so closely tied with political rule in so many areas.

Discussion Questions
1. What are you learning new about Islam this week? How is this helping your understanding?
2. Which of the Five Pillars of Islam is the most mysterious to you? Pretend you are teaching the class in person. Which pillar would make you study more.
3. Explain what is most interesting to you about the life of Mohammed?

Christianity

Word and Sacrament, by Norma Boeckler
Christianity

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.


The Christian Faith is a continuation of Judaism, in worship, in beliefs, and in the Scriptures. Some try to divide the Bible into Law (Old Testament) and Gospel (New Testament). In fact, the Old Testament is filled with Gospel promises and the New Testament contains God’s Law.

From a Christian perspective, the first Gospel promise was Genesis 3:15, when Adam and Eve were expelled from Paradise but promised a Savior Who would crush the head of the Serpent, Satan. All the passages in the Old Testament concerning the promised Messiah and all the messages of hope, comfort, and love are considered Gospel passages by the Christian community.

Jesus was born into a Jewish family and observed Jewish customs. He called the disciples from among the Jews and first taught the Jewish people. Therefore, it is not surprising to find so much of Judaism in the Christian Faith.

If I had to explain the Christian faith to someone from another planet, I would say this:

Christianity emphasizes salvation through God’s grace, apart from works of the Law. God gave man the Law, but frail human beings could not keep the Ten Commandments even when they tried their best. God sent His Son, Jesus, born of a Virgin, to live among, to teach us, to serve as an example, and to die for our sins in our place. Jesus rose from the dead to show that He was free of sin and not subject to the power of death. He rose from the dead because God pronounced Him innocent. When we speak of the Atonement, it means that Jesus atoned for our sins, that He suffered and died in our place.

Believing in the atoning death of Christ and His resurrection means receiving the promise of forgiveness and eternal life offered by God. This is called justification by faith, apart from the works of the Law. God forgives our sins, not because we have earned that forgiveness, but because Jesus has earned it for us. Since death is the penalty for sin, we receive eternal life instead of eternal death through this forgiveness earned by the Savior.

Christianity is centered upon the Word of God in the Scriptures. We include the 27 books of the New Testament along with the 39 books of the Old Testament. Preserving the truth of the Scriptures is very important to traditional Christians.

Christianity now has many branches. The chief branches are: the liturgical (Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox), the Protestant (Presbyterian, Baptist, Mennonite, Methodist), and the Pentecostal (Assemblies of God, as well as denominational influence through the charismatic movement). The sacraments are very important to the liturgical churches. Each denomination has a different emphasis, but all base their doctrines upon the Scriptures.

The Christian Faith is moving in another direction. The established denominations have become quite liberal. The Third World churches remain quite traditional. It remains to be seen where this will head. Already in Europe the old cathedrals are empty, except for tourists gawking. The Moslem worship centers are packed with faithful followers of Islam. If this trend continues, then Europe will be defined by Islam rather than by Christianity and Judaism.

In America there is a massive aging trend. The denominations are getting quite elderly. Many people confess they only see grey and white hair on Sunday. Worship attendance and giving is largely from the oldest age group. When that is stopped by death, the complexion of American Christianity will change quickly. The demographic trends include large increases in the Hispanic populations. This change may turn the American Roman Catholic Church into a Hispanic denomination.

Discussion Questions

1. Based on your studies, which are the key differences between Judaism and Christianity.
2. What trends do you see developing in Christianity, in America and in Europe?
Optional
3. Who are the only religious leaders known by name in the world? Why do you think this is so?

Judaism

Torah Scroll, Hebrew Text
Judaism

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

The key to understanding Judaism is the giving of the Law to Moses. However, it is important to understand what torah (law) means in Hebrew. When people think of the word law, they think of being commanded to do one thing or forbidden to do another. The Hebrew word torah means teaching. The central defining characteristic of the Jewish culture is the Law: the commands, traditions, customs, and worship practices that bind the Jewish people together.

Because of the importance of the Torah, Judaism is expressed by the presence of a rabbi to teach the Torah to the congregation, a place to worship, and Torah scrolls that are treated with utmost respect. Judaism can exist without a local rabbi, but the leadership of a rabbi is considered a priority. The synagogue may be quite elaborate and large or quite modest, but worship demands a place where the proper services may be performed.

Judaism is divided into three main associations today: Reformed, Conservative, and Orthodox. The Reformed are most like the liberal denominations of Christianity in their approach toward many issues. For instance, the Reformed Jews were the first to ordain women rabbis. Conservative Judaism also ordains women rabbis, but they made that change later. Orthodox Jews maintain the oldest traditions, including having only male rabbis.

The Jewish scriptures are the Old Testament books, but they are organized with different names for the groups of books. The Five Books of Moses are the Torah (although Torah also has the broader meaning of the Teaching of God). The other two groups of books are the Prophets (the Old Testament prophets) and the Writings (Psalms, Proverbs, etc.). One very important fact for Christians is that the Christian faith agrees with Judaism about the inspired books of the Old Testament. The Jewish Bible corresponds exactly with the Christian Old Testament, except that Roman Catholics also include the books of the Apocrypha (1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, etc.).

Another important source of religious teaching is the Talmud. Started in the earliest days, after the Christian faith began to be taught, the Talmud is comprised of several layers of commentary. Below is a link that gives a page of the Talmud:

http://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudPage.html

The content of the Talmud itself is so extensive that it would take many years to discuss it. Judaism expects all rabbis to be highly educated in their own religion and in the liberal arts as well. Moreover, the typical Jew is also expected to have extensive training in Hebrew, in Judaism, and in various academic studies. When Jews came to America in great poverty, they carried with them a tradition of pursuing the highest levels of education. Kept away from the best schools at first, Jews nevertheless excelled in learning and earned their way into the Ivy Leagues and every branch of learning.

Today in America a synagogue will have a Jewish school to train the children in Hebrew and Judaism. Many websites also encourage more learning. A key event in the life of every Jewish boy is the bar mitzvah. Many Jewish girls participate in the female counterpart, but the bar mitzvah seems to be the most significant as a community event and as a turning point in the life of a Jewish family. At a bar mitzvah the boy (usually around age 13) will read from the Torah. He trains a long time to do this perfectly. Following the service is a very elaborate family and community meal accompanied by impressive gifts.

The influence of Judaism is so strong in Christianity and in America that people often do not think about their debt to the Jews.
1. The liturgical service of the Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Eastern Orthodox follow the general lines of Jewish worship.
2. The practice of appointed scripture readings is common to Judaism and the Christian denominations listed above.
3. Educated Christian clergy are expected to learn Hebrew to understand Judaism and the Old Testament.
4. The prominence of Jewish leaders in America is out of proportion to the number of Jews in this country. They earn honors in every field of learning, in the performing arts, and in entertainment.

We also have the political events in the Middle East to consider. The daily conflicts in the Holy Land involve the three religions of this course: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The more we understand their history and culture, the more we understand world events.

Discussion Questions

1. What do you think is most distinctive about Judaism? Pick one concept and discuss it.

2. Name some prominent members of our society who are Jewish – and you never realized it. Here are some links to help:

http://www.jewhoo.com/

http://www.yahoodi.com/famous/index.html

Western Religions

Introduction to Western Religions

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

Western religion is one of the most significant topics we can study today, because the next twenty years will mark a world struggle between the Judeo-Christian culture on one hand and Moslem-Eastern culture on the other. Today the world is polarized. The forces of democracy are wealthy but failing in population growth. People are full of doubt about whether Western values are good for the rest of the world. In contrast, Asia and the Moslem world are weak in economic power (apart from oil) and overwhelming in population growth. Moreover, they are certain that Western values are corrupt, that their values are good. Some are willing to die for their cause.

People vary greatly in their religious beliefs, but almost everyone has some set of transcendent values. Some call this a net. We have almost the same set of facts to observe, but we carry them in a net called religion. My friend in Canada, once a sailor with the US Navy, saw the 9-11 disaster with entirely different eyes than most Americans. He is living in Montreal, Canada, profoundly influenced by attitudes there.

Definitions

Definitions are very important in religious discussions. There is a reason we divide world religions into a Western and an Eastern course. The basis or foundation for the religions of the West are quite different from the religions of the East. Definitions help explain this difference.

Historic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all based upon historical figures who really lived. Not only that, the facts about these people matter greatly. The historical truths are not incidental to the religions of the West: they are part of the religions of the West. The figures of the Old Testament are the teachers and leaders of Israel. Jesus and the Apostles are the foundation of the Christian faith. Apart from “There is only one God Allah and Mohammed is His prophet” there is no Islamic religion. However, Eastern religion is not so concerned with historical fact.

Monotheistic religions – the three Western religions we study in this course are monotheistic. They emphasize that God is one in essence. That is quite a contrast with Hinduism in India, where 300 million gods are acknowledged, or in Buddhism, where the religion is centered on self-discipline and not on a divinity.

People of the Book – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all emphasize their scriptures as essential and normative. Normative means that the scripture determines both faith and practice of the religion. The scriptures of all three religions are clearly defined.

Common history – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have shared the same land. They have fought over Jerusalem and still have their own quarters in the holy city. They have shared Europe and fought over Europe. The developments from the start of Islam to the First Crusade are just as germane today as they were during the Reformation of the 16th century.

The Law – all three religions emphasize the Law as God’s will for the conduct of His people. Interpretations of the Law vary but all three religions are easily defined in terms of how the faithful should conduct themselves.

What can we learn from these religions?

First of all, we need to know what they consider important and how they distinguish their beliefs from the doctrines of the other world religions. If we cannot understand another religion through the eyes of the faithful, then we are only looking at it as a curiosity. We do not have to give up our beliefs to understand another’s, but we should be sympathetic and try to put ourselves in another’s position.

Secondly, we can see how much these distinctions matter today. In many businesses and educational institutions, the world religions are thrust together through the global nature of commerce and academic life. Since religious values are so important to many people, mutual understanding can great enhance harmony and communication.

Discussion Questions

1. Will knowledge about these three religions affect your working life or your relationships outside of work?
2. What do you see developing in the next decade, in view of the current religious conflicts?
3. What do you think is most different about each of the three Western religions? You may express this in terms of being unique, exotic, inspiring, or unappealing. (Optional)

Eastern Influence Through Celebrities

Richard Gere and the Dalai Lama


Eastern Religious Influence through Celebrities

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

The 19th century was called “the Christian Century” because of missionary expansion. The missionaries followed and sometimes preceded the expansion of the Western empires: British, American, German, Dutch and Spanish. James Morris in Pax Brittanica shows how British religion and culture filled the world through its colonies in India, Africa, Australia, and the West Indies, with many more possessions added to protect and to provision the Empire. Until the end of World War II, Western culture seemed to be expanding throughout the globe. The last 50 years have seen a reverse as Eastern religion has come to be embraced by celebrities and also by many others emulating the highly visible media stars.

Through informal surveys in class I have asked students to identify world religious figures. They can usually only name two in the world: Pope John Paul II and the Dalai Lama. Both of them are well known across the world and often portrayed in a positive light in the media. The Dalai Lama has the unique advantage of being well known the longest, ever since 1949, with many well known figures attracted to his teaching. It is cool in Hollywood to be Buddhist. It is not cool to be Roman Catholic.

The Dalai Lama was born in 1935 and enthroned when he was not quite five years old. The 1940 event alone attracted attention throughout the world since few religious figures are picked and established as young children. He eventually earned his doctorate in Buddhist philosophy. By 1950 the Chinese Communists were pressing upon Tibet in an effort to absorb the country into their empire. The pressure grew until the Dalai Lama was forced to seek refuge in India in 1959. From that vantage point he has been able to address the problems of his country and serve as spiritual advisor for many in the West who have sought his guidance. (http://www.tibet.com/DL/biography.html)

The turning point in celebrity religious conversions developed during the Beatles’ peak in world-wide fame. Those who lived through those years will never forget the way they made American music obsolete overnight, eclipsing Elvis overnight, how the Beatles moved on to create new fads and movements. The Beatles became interested in Hinduism through George Harrison, who was approached by a guru from India. George Harrison’s wife took the Beatles to a lecture by the Maharishi Yogi in 1967. Although the Beatles followed him for only a short time, their adoption of chic Eastern clothes and sitar music changed fashion and music immediately. The ultimate cultural event of the 20th century, Woodstock in 1969, featured a white-robed Indian swami on the stage, saying the prayer of invocation. (http://www.bu.edu/arion/paglia_cults6.htm)


The Beatles (and Mia Farrow) focused so much attention on Hinduism and Transcendental Meditation that the Maharishi Yogi became a media figure overnight and established several colleges in America. My friend from elementary school was training to be a Lutheran minister. He was attracted to TM and became a TM teacher at Maharishi College in Iowa, where he is highly acclaimed as a tennis coach.

The Maharishi Yogi was not the most exemplary figure. It is claimed that he wanted 20% of the Beatles’ income to promote his causes. The Beatles, backed by Mia Farrow, claimed that the guru emphasized chastity while using his position to seduce women, including Mia. TM was closely identified with one man, Maharishi Yogi, who emphasized himself above all. Everything is named after him:

http://www.maharishi.org/

http://www.mum.edu/Maharishi.html

The teachings of Buddhism seem to be the most attractive to celebrities. Forms of Hinduism are bound up in Indian culture, so that is a hindrance once the exotic fads of India have died away. In contrast, Buddhism transcends culture and appeals to the me-centered culture of our time. I think Buddhism is especially attractive to celebrities because they are narcissistic, insecure, and searching for something to give them peace without taking away their self-centeredness. The Four Truths and Eightfold Paths are so easy to learn and expand upon that anyone can be catechized in Buddhism.

The movements toward vegetarianism, environmentalism, and alternative medicine are all related to Eastern religion. It is difficult to determine whether the Eastern religions promoted these ideas in the first place or whether the Eastern religions became attractive to those with similar philosophies.

The best-known celebrity Buddhist is Richard Gere, who first became famous in the depressing film “Looking for Mr. Goodbar.” He is so identified with Buddhism in Hollywood that articles about the film “Seven Years in Tibet” often mention him, even though he had no direct connection with the film. American interest in Buddhism doubtless helped in the acceptance of the film. (http://www.space.net.au/~lmccorry/seven_years1.htm)

“Kundun” is a lesser-known film by Scorcese, describing the early life of the Dalai Lama. Students who have seen both films think that “Kundun” is superior for understanding Buddhism in its natural setting. (http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/4886/movie.htm)

The extent of Buddhist influence in Holly is revealed in this one quotation:

The Dalai Lama is also a major spiritual influence on actress Sharon Stone, composer Philip Glass, Adam Yauch of the Beastie Boys, and martial-arts star Steven Seagal. "The Dalai Lama's been a great friend to me, and I don't want to use that for anything but my personal spiritual sustenance," Seagal told Schell. "He is the great mother of everything nurturing and loving. He accepts all who come without judgment. He has a very serious impact on the degenerate times in which we live and on bringing us back to a more pure realm."
(http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/008/15.64.html)

The long-standing attraction of Hollywood toward Buddhism is shown in the classic movie “Lost Horizon,” 1937. The city of perfection in the novel and movie became President Roosevelt’s name for the current Camp David – Shangri La. Sometimes Hollywood attention has mixed results. The 1973 musical version of “Lost Horizon” has been justifiably voted to be the worst musical ever produced.

Discussion Questions
1. Discuss the Buddhist influence you have experienced in America.
2. Do you think Buddhism can be adopted without giving up another religion? For instance, some speak of Zen Christianity. How does that strike you? Remember, I am asking for opinions that can be backed up with argumentation. There is no requirement to agree with my opinions and beliefs.
3. Do you find yourself impacted more by Hinduism or Buddhism?

Confucius

Confucius

Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

No one can define three world religions in a short essay, so I will confine myself to Confucius and the impact of his philosophy. To this day the government and culture of China is defined by Confucius, even if the government has sought to supplant the original philosophy with various substitutes. The underlying culture remains so strong that China remains Confucian in substance, like an old Victorian mansion with many coats of badly chosen paint that hide the earlier work and yet still reveal its fundamental design.

Confucius the Teacher
We know Confucius from his Latinized name. He was born K'ung-fu-tze in 551 BC. He had a distinguished background, but his warrior father died when Confucius was young, forcing the boy to work as a servant. Nevertheless, he had a propensity for study and never neglected learning. He seemed to have a reformer’s zeal and self-confidence, even though his life was mostly full of setbacks and dishonor.

Confucius first set up a school, even as a young man, in a country where age equals wisdom. He attracted students and later became a government minister. When his advice was not heeded by the ruler, Confucius resigned and began a life of wandering teaching. He cultivated his philosophy in many places but he was not well received overall. His life was often threatened. After 13 years of peripatetic teaching he returned to his home province, where he lived five more years until his death at age 74.

Post Mortem Persecution
The teachings of Confucius were persecuted after his death. Confucian scholars were buried alive and texts destroyed in 213 BC. However, the Han dynasty stopped the persecution in 191 AD. Eventually the Confucian texts became established in a way that gave the teacher the ultimate influence over his country. The teachings of Confucius became the standard for serving in the administration of the country. Those who were Confucian scholars advanced in the state exams. The exams were extremely rigorous and allowed only 1% of the initial candidates (who passed!) to take the final step into training. This developed during the Ming dynasty.

By making scholarship in Confucius the hallmark of success in the government, the Chinese imprinted his ideas upon their entire civilization. It is important to realize, too, that Confucius did not see himself as inventing new ideas but as gathering ancient wisdom. Like the editor of folk songs, he is given credit for collecting the wisdom of the past. Nevertheless, his achievement was enormous, especially considering the centuries of opposition that followed his life’s efforts.

The Influence of Confucius
When we look at the recent history of China, the one great characteristic of the country seems to be isolation. The Confucian scholars deliberately isolated their country from the barbarians of the West to keep their culture pure. This led to one of the great episodes of history, lost to human knowledge until recently. The Chinese set out with about 500 sailing ships and traveled across the world, leaving maps used later by Columbus and Magellan. (http://www.1421.tv)

The great Chinese naval voyages (1405-1433) ended when the regime changed and Confucian scholars ordered the destruction of the entire fleet, to avoid pollution from trading with foreigners. Therefore, the age of world exploration and trade began with accurate Chinese maps but without Asian participation. The Chinese voyages explain many anomalies of history, such as finding Chinese animals and plants across the world where they did not belong, and the Chinese junk dug up by President George Washington in America.

Modern Confucius
Just as the Chinese of the past advanced through their knowledge of Confucius, the Chinese Marxists prospered according to their ability to follow the thought of Mao. In the 1960’s, The Sayings of Chairman Mao were enormously popular in American colleges, printed with a red cover (a positive color in China) and small enough to be carried easily. While Mao was alive, the cult of Mao seemed very much like the aura surrounding Confucius in the old days.


Discussion Questions

1. What if the Chinese fleet of ships had remained instead of being destroyed? How would that have affected world history and religion for the better or for the worse?
2. Which aspects of Confucian learning seem to persist in Chinese culture today? Compare Buddhism to Confucian thought. How are they similar or different?

Buddhism

The Three Schools of Buddhism
Buddhism
Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

Hinduism is so identified with India so much that few people outside of India call themselves Hindu, even if they adopt the basic tenets of the religion. More likely the person will identify with Transcendental Meditation or Yoga, but not with Hinduism itself. For that reason Buddhism is especially interesting since it can be called the essence of Hinduism - without the attributes of a particular race or even a particular set of gods.

Buddhism has many unique characteristics, even though it really sprang from India and from Hinduism. First of all, Buddhism is identified with a person who lived in history. Some would even say that the figure of Buddha is so often portrayed and venerated that Buddha is in essence a god. However, that is also the genius of Buddhism. The adherents say that their religion is harmonious with all other religions, so we find many combinations of Buddhist-Hindu, Buddhist-Shinto, and even claims of Zen Christianity. Therefore, Buddhism can be non-theistic, with no recognition of a god, and also syncretistic, a religion combined with other religions.

Buddha’s life is very much the essence of the religion. When he was born to a ruler, it is said, someone prophesied that the baby would either be a worldly ruler or a spiritual ruler. The parents did not want to raise a spiritual guru, so they surrounded him with every luxury and pleasure. They also prevented him from seeing anything unpleasant, such as death, sickness, and poverty. Not surprisingly, the sheltered and pampered prince was stricken when he saw the tragedies of life with his own eyes for the first time. His recognition of suffering became the core of Buddhism as it developed later.

Buddha did not become a religious leader overnight. He left his wife and child, all his worldly possessions and future power, and traveled to find himself. He naturally came under the spell of Hindu gurus, spiritual masters known for their extremes. Buddha tried their excesses and finally came to realize that there was a middle way. He then converted his trainers into his disciples. His natural gifts for leadership and his desire to create disciples combined to create a remarkable impact on the Eastern world and eventually on ours as well.

Buddha took the Hindu concepts of meditation and self-discipline to a new level, avoiding the extremes of starvation and self-punishment. Buddha’s middle way and his ability in transcending culture both helped him appeal to all types of people in many cultures. He also offered an obviously practical solution to the problems caused by self-centeredness. Since he lived the ultimate life of sheltered self-centeredness, it is interesting to see how he came to reject or deny the self.

Buddha’s basic truths are that suffering is unavoidable, that we cause our own suffering, and that we can remove the pain by self-discipline. The final truth is that the eight-fold path will remove suffering. This catechism is so simple and clear that anyone can remember and teach it. No other Eastern religion can be summarized so simply.

Those who read the tenets of Buddhism for the first time are often struck by how self-centered they are. Buddhism is the ultimate religion of self, so no one should be surprised that Hollywood figures are so attracted to this non-theistic religion. Those who are pampered and flattered all day doubtless feel confused about why they suffer so much inner turmoil when everything is done for them, when everyone bows and scrapes. Buddhism is a non-threatening discipline for them, one that accepts all gods as well as godlessness.

Buddhism is also attractive because one of the two best known religious figures in the world is the leader of the religion. Most classes agree that they can only name two religious figures – the pope and the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama has been a prominent and respected media figure for 50 years, respected for his leadership of a people persecuted by the Chinese. Movies have been made about him and his people.

Buddhism is also appealing to people because of its emphasis upon inner peace and world peace. Many people look to Buddhism as exemplifying both. They also feel comfortable in maintaining their original religion while embracing the Enlightened One.

Discussion Questions

1. List some famous people who are identified with Buddhism. Why do you think this is happening?
2. Which aspect of Buddhism do you find most appealing, and why? How are your views of Buddhism changing after reading more about the religion?

Hinduism

Shiva, the Cosmic Dancer

Hinduism
Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.


Who is a Hindu?"Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and the realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshiped is large, that indeed is the distinguishing feature of the Hindu religion." B.G. Tilak's definition of what makes one a basic Hindu, as quoted by India's Supreme Court. On July 2, 1995, the Court referred to it as an "adequate and satisfactory formula." (http://www.hindu.org/)

Because Western religion is defined through history, a confession of faith, and monotheism, the Hindu religion seems formless and impossible to describe adequately. One might say, “The religion of the sub-continent of India, considered as a whole, is Hinduism.”

India is important to modern history for many reasons. The British slowly began to dominate India over a period of centuries through the British East India Company. The sub-continent was at first an exotic place to make a fortune while leaving the natives alone in their religion. The missionary impulse came to India especially during the 19th century (once dubbed The Christian Century, with a magazine named after it). Some saw the expansion of the British Empire an ideal opportunity to spread the Gospel.

Missionaries and the English-sponsored schools tried to remove the influence of Hinduism from Indian society. The British had reason to be disgusted with certain Hindu religious practices. The society of Thugs existed to strangle people along the highways and steal their goods. They worshiped the goddess Kali, who was said to live on blood.

http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/952304/posts

William Sleeman broke up the secret Thug society, and no one grieved for its loss. To this day we call the worst criminals “thugs” without thinking of them as Indian criminals.

Another vile Indian practice was “suttee.” When a man died, his wife was supposed to throw herself on the funeral pyre. This was considered the only genuine way to show piety and devotion to the husband. However, he was not expected to do the same if his wife died first. This practice continues in a limited fashion in some areas. (I asked on the Internet. A native of India said it continues but only among the most backward.)

Ruyard Kipling, a cheerleader for the British Empire, wrote a poem about suttee:

http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/lit/poetry/VersesKipling1889-1896/chap24.html

Although it is popular to denounce the British for their absorption of India, for making Queen Victoria the Empress of India, and for dominating Indian culture, we should also consider the positive benefits of English rule. India remains an economic powerhouse today, a democracy in a region where tyrants normally hold sway.

India seems to be conquering the West at the moment. First of all, the technological skills of the Indians and their lower wages are drawing vast numbers of computer contracts from America to their land. Some attribute the free-form Hindu religion to the ability of Indians to master complex and ever-changing computer technologies. People expect database managers to be Indian.

Secondly, the central focus of the Hindu religion – yoga or meditation – is having a major impact upon Western society. The elevators of the University of Phoenix advertise yoga classes. Some see this as a harmless way to relax, exercise, and gain focus on work. Others see yoga as a subtle introduction of religion in the guise of a beneficial program.

Yoga has spawned Buddhism and lately Transcendental Meditation. The Maharishi Yogi has had enough influence in America to establish several colleges, one in Iowa (http://www.mum.edu/library/) my best friend from grade school is a famous tennis coach touted in Sports Illustrated. Although we came from the same Lutheran congregation and attended Yale Divinity School, Larry Eyre became a TM teacher and tennis coach.

A third area of importance is the growing acceptance of the guru. Just as Maharishi Yogi was guru to many disciples, so are many people today fashioning themselves as spiritual or practical gurus. Tony Robbins is more like an Eastern guru than a Western personal coach. He attributes many of his insights to Eastern religion. If he did not, it would be a clear case of plagiarism.

Discussion Questions

1. When the British tried to eliminate Hinduism in India, were they advancing a society or destroying a culture?
2. Based on your reading of the textbook, which Indian god is the most intriguing to you? Which Indian god is the most repulsive or horrifying?

World Religions Introduction

Religions of the East


Gregory L. Jackson, Ph.D.

At first we might think that the religions of the East are exotic but not familiar to us. Many people would find it difficult to start describing Hinduism or Buddhism, and even more challenging to talk about the religion of Shinto or the philosophy of Confucius. However, when the topics of acupuncture, yoga, herbal medicine, or feng shui come up, people are suddenly knowledgeable, without thinking at first that they are dealing with aspects of Eastern religion.

Two differences are quite noticeable when comparing Eastern religions to the religions of the West (Judaism, Christianity, Islam). The first involves their view of the history. The second difference is their overall view of God.
History versus Transcending History
The Western concept of history is closely related to a timeline and specific events known to have taken place in time. For instance, Creation is a point in time. Moses led his people out of Egypt during one particular era. Jesus was born in the Roman Empire during the reign of Caesar Augustus. The exact date of Jesus’ birth is disputed but the variance is only a few years. The prophet Mohammed is known for living in two particular cities, Medina and Mecca, and for having a direct impact on the events of his day.

Conflict within Western religion often takes place over historical interpretation, whether an event took place or not. When Rudolph Bultmann argued for the mythological interpretation of the New Testament, he was showing just as much interest in history as those who accepted the plain, literal meaning of the Scriptures. Even though Bultmann denied that certain New Testament miracles took place, his focus was still upon history and facts.

In contrast, the Eastern religions do not connect their meaning to historical events, although certain events are crucial (Buddha’s first realization of pain, suffering, illness, and death). Hinduism cannot even be limited to a specific confession of faith or set of dogmas. The official definition of Hinduism includes polytheism, the Vedas as scripture, and tolerance for different points of view. Shinto has many forms, with emperor worship being officially retired.

For this reason, Eastern religions seem to have a more pervasive influence upon daily life. One never thinks about a Catholic or a Methodist garden, but the Japanese garden is a reflection of the doctrines of Shinto. Pentecostals concentrate upon miraculous healings in the Christian world, but the Eastern religions have highly developed healing arts directed connected to their philosophy. Eastern religion is pervasive in Asian and Indian cultures, unless it is suppressed by Marxist government. Western religion seems quite secular and separate from society in comparison.
Monotheism versus Polytheism

The second major difference concerns God. The three Western religions agree in teaching monotheism – one God who acts in history. The Eastern religions are both polytheistic and non-theistic. Monotheism is foreign to Eastern religion.

Hinduism has over 300 million gods. No one can name them all or worship them all, so religious tolerance has a special meaning to India. Within Hinduism there is necessarily a great deal of latitude about beliefs, but great tension with Islam and Christianity.

Buddhism is supposed to be non-theistic, allowing for god but not requiring a specific belief nor opposing particular dogmas. Nevertheless, many would say that the hundreds of Buddha statues venerated by disciples suggest Buddha as a god. Buddhist literature also speaks of gods and goddesses.

Confucius seems to have established something more related to a philosophy of life than a religion about a deity or deities. These differences with Western religion also make it easier for people to adopt two or more Eastern religions at the same time. A Methodist-Jewish-Islamic disciple is such a contradiction that no one would consider it seriously, but one commonly finds people combining several Eastern religions.

Discussion Questions
1. What have you experienced among people who practice one of the religions of the East?
2. Some people think that Eastern religion is more influential in America than Western religion. What are your thoughts?

World Religions Being Posted

The world religions commonly studied will be featured on this site in the coming months. To find information about a religion, check the labels lists in the margin.

Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant Finished!

CATHOLIC, LUTHERAN, PROTESTANT:
A Doctrinal Comparison of Three Christian Confessions

Gregory L. Jackson, STM (Yale), PhD (Notre Dame)

Available from Christian News: $24.95, plus shipping.


Or - http://www.lulu.com ($15 for the PDF; $24.95 for the book, plus shipping).

Or - G. Jackson, 6421. W. Poinsettia Drive, Glendale, AZ 85304. (Discount for orders of ten or more.)

Author
Pastor Gregory L. Jackson is in a unique position to write this book, a revision of the work printed first in 1993 through Christian News with the help of Timothy Otten. The original files were lost, so the book was re-written.

Pastor Jackson has studied under many Lutheran professors (Robert Preus, Kurt Marquart, Paul Holmer, Nils Dahl, Otto Heick, and Edward Fredrich. Roman Catholic professors and lecturers include Elisabeth and Frank Fiorenza (both at Harvard now), Henri Nouwen, and others not known to most CN readers. Some of the Lutherans (Richard Neuhaus, Robert Wilken, Leonard Klein) subsequently became Roman Catholic, or in the case of Jaroslav Pelikan, died Eastern Orthodox. Some Protestants heard include Billy Graham, D. James Kenneday, Paul Y. Cho, Howard Yoder, and Bill Hybels (Willow Creek).

Jackson earned an MA and PhD in theology at the University of Notre Dame, where national conferences brought many interesting speakers. Previously he earned an STM degree in Biblical studies from Yale University. After experiencing the apostasy of the Lutherans synods, he became independent and still serves people through the Word and Sacraments. He teaches at several universities and does financial planning.

First Section - Agreement
· The Scriptures and Natural Law
Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant is organized into three main sections. The first section, on agreement, lays the groundwork for showing that orthodox Lutheran doctrine is the Christian faith. The first chapter shows the overall agreement among the Catholics, Lutherans, and Protestants about the authority and inerrancy of the Scriptures. Natural law is also common ground for all Christians. Although there are obvious differences in how the Bible is treated, as various reviewers were quick to notice, there is really no chance for harmony without a foundation in the Word of God.

Section Section - Partial Agreement
· The Sacraments
The second section of the book deals with partial agreement – the Sacraments. Because all three groups name the Sacraments, the first differences become apparent when they are compared. The concept of the book was to present the material as fairly as possible, to allow Catholic/Lutheran couples to study their teachings from their own sources. As a result, many new Lutherans appreciate the book, especially when they have changed from Roman Catholicism.

Quite a few libraries were turned over to provide the information in Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant. The author collected a total of 3,000 verbatim quotations to use for this book and others.

Third Section – Complete Disagreement
· Justification, Chapter Three
· Purgatory, Chapter Four
· Papacy, Chapter Five
· Mary, Chapter Six
· Luther versus the Papacy, Chapter Seven

The third section generates the most interest in classes. The differences between Roman Catholic justification (faith plus works) is compared to Biblical teaching (justification by faith alone). Also, the similarities between Protestants and Catholics are explored. The requirement of tongues for Pentecostals is no different than the requirement of good works for Catholics.

Few people know exactly how Purgatory developed in the Christian Church. Jackson had access to a papal owned seminary in Columbus, Ohio, and obtained access to its excellent library. One of the most famous Roman Catholic scholars, Father Jugie, wrote Purgatory and the Means To Avoid It, considered a good apologetic for that hideous doctrine. The Vatican seminary had a remarkable collection of books on Purgatory and Mary. There was only one name on many of them! Roman Catholic priests are more likely to be liberal Protestants. All the critiques of Roman doctrine were in that library, from Chemnitz’ Examination of the Council of Trent, to Kueng and Hasler.

The development of doctrine about Purgatory, the papal infallibility, and Mary are all enmeshed with fides formata (faith formed by works). Mary and Purgatory cannot be separated in Roman Catholic piety, which makes one wonder why some Lutheran pastors are so keen to promote Marian devotion.

The Church of Rome knows that many of its leaders have lied about Luther. The oldest work of slander (The Seven-Headed Luther) is still used as if it is factual. These deceptions are analyzed in the last chapter, where the papacy as the Antichrist is discussed.

Almost 9 pages of bibliography and 450 footnotes provide sources for the chapters and a guide for additional study.

Audience
The book began as an adult study class for couples where one person was Lutheran and the other a Roman Catholic. A brief outline of the class in Christian News led to phone calls, saying, “You must write a book on this!” Once the book was in print, pastors found it was useful for adult doctrinal classes and confirmation classes as well.

Einstein on Creation

Albert Einstein wrote:

"Every one who is seriously engaged in the pursuit of science becomes convinced that the laws of nature manifest the existence of a spirit vastly superior to that of men, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble."
(Letter to Yale Alumni Magazine, May/June, 2007, Joel Brind, '71, Professor of Human Biology, Baruch College)

Brind added his own comment: "Without humility, science is worse than mindless. It is dangerous."

Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant - Soon To Appear

Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant will be published very soon. I am discussing details with a local printer. I have also registered to have the book available on Lulu.com, as well as from Amazon, Barnes and Noble, and Borders.

I appreciate the interest people have expressed in having more copies.

Previous books will also appear in one form or another, definitely on Lulu.com, perhaps in other forms as well.

My printer suggested making an audio of Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant. I would appreciate hearing your interest in that. People could listen on their iPods or in the car.

There will defintely be an instructor's guide for CLP.